History:
The use of steroids as a performance-enhancing drug can be traced back to Ancient Greece. During this time, the practice of treating an organ with itself was a useful common practice. Athletes took to this by eating lamb testes in order to enhance their performance in sports. The consumption of the lamb testes was to increase the athletes’ size and strength.[1] Later, in the mid 19th century Berthold conducted experiments with roosters to learn more about the testes. He found that the testes produces chemicals responsible for male attributes, testosterone.[2] This knowledge would make way for further research on testosterone and ultimately to the production of steroids.
The performance enhancing drugs that are more common today, were first prevalent in sports. The first death associated with performance enhancing drugs was in 1886, when Arthur Linton died after taking the stimulant trimethyl.[3] A few years after this incident, many scientists began experimenting with other stimulant drugs. In 1889, the French scientist, Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard conducted an experiment where he injected himself with testosterone from the testes of dogs and guinea pigs. From this experiment he learned that extracts from the testes of these animals resulted in increased alertness and strength.[4] By 1931. German chemist Adolf Butenandt was the first to isolate androsterone, a male steroid. Not long after, other scientists began finding ways to synthesize androsterone themselves.[5] Four years later, the Schering Corporation began manufacturing testosterone after it was synthesized for the first time by four chemists from the Organon Company in the Netherlands.[6]
After testosterone was synthesized in the 1930s, anabolic androgenic steroids were developed. Since then, hundred of different steroids have been synthesized and produced but only a few were produced for the general public.[7] In 1965, Dr. John Ziegler attended the World Games and witnessed athletes using hormonal treatments to perform better. With this Ziegler got funding from Ciba, a pharmaceutical company, and synthesized the first anabolic steroid named Dianabol.[8] Since Ziegler’s development of Dianabol, there has been a wide range of steroid production. The 1960’s and 70’s witnessed a significant increase in the number of people using steroids and the commercial sale of it.
During this time, low doses of amphetamines, stimulants were also being tested. Lazar Edeleanu, a Romanian chemist, first synthesized amphetamines in 1887. It was not until 1927 amphetamines were used for clinical use after Gordon Alles, a chemist and pyschopharmacologist, and George Piness, an allergist, re-synthesized amphetamine. From this amphetamines were used as nasal congestion and it was not until later with more test that it was found to effectively treat narcolepsy, increased alertness, blood pressure and confidence.[9] In the 1950s, Ritalin and Cylert, two of the first ADHD medications was produced.[10] In the early 1990s, ADHD diagnoses became more prevalent in the US. The number of patients diagnosed with ADHD increased from 1.6 to 4.2 million from 1990 to 1993, which resulted in an increase in the use of psychostimulants like Ritalin and Cylert.[11]
During the increase of consumption of amphetamines, there was a concurrent increase in the consumption of steroids. However, medical and sporting institutions were skeptical about steroids ability to improve athletic performance. It was not until the 1980s that steroids was considered a performance enhancing drug, and even then it was believed that only special circumstances would permit actual improvement. Given this, sporting institution’s public policy took an anti-doping position. However, this would not deter use of steroids because of the original skepticism. Athletes would not believe the sports medicines proclaimed adverse of steroids.[12] Athletes within other areas of sports like track and field, football, swimming, cycling, wrestling, and many more became users. Men within the general public began using steroids as well. This gave rise to the misuse of steroids. However, since the earliest users of steroids are just reaching their middle ages, there is still no concrete evidence to the long-term effects of steroids.[13]
The International Association of Athletics Federation became the first international sporting federation to ban performance-enhancing drugs.[14] Soon drug testing began more popular in order to regulate the use of these drugs. The creation of the Controlled Substances Act by the US government regulates drug possession, importation, manufacturing and distribution. By 1990, steroids were added to the list of controlled substances.
Just as consumption of both amphetamines and steroids increased concurrently, the misuse of these drugs rose concurrently as well. In recent years, Cylert was taken off of the market because of its negative affects on the liver.[15] Despite the adverse affects of this amphetamine, the misuse of other amphetamines like, Adderall and Ritalin became popular on college campuses. A 2005 study by Sean Estaban McCabe, a professor and researcher at the University of Michigan’s Substance Abuse Research Center, found that in 2004, 4.1% of American college undergrads had taken stimulants without a prescription.[16] Off the label use of prescribed stimulants became a growing problem in the US especially among college students in the early 2000s.
The misuse of adderall and steroids has major societal impacts, as it is a possible health risk to many of its users. These risk are most important to government agencies in trying to regulate these drugs and they look to the medical community to form their polices. There is still a lot of research being done on the adverse effects of these drugs, therefore many government agencies purport only using these drugs for prescribed medical reasons. Along with more research, there are still many debates around performance enhancing drugs. While many against the performance enhancing drugs, there is a possible faction of supporters of performance enhancing drugs forming. These debates will continue until more research is conducted that provides concrete evidence of the effects of these drugs.
The performance enhancing drugs that are more common today, were first prevalent in sports. The first death associated with performance enhancing drugs was in 1886, when Arthur Linton died after taking the stimulant trimethyl.[3] A few years after this incident, many scientists began experimenting with other stimulant drugs. In 1889, the French scientist, Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard conducted an experiment where he injected himself with testosterone from the testes of dogs and guinea pigs. From this experiment he learned that extracts from the testes of these animals resulted in increased alertness and strength.[4] By 1931. German chemist Adolf Butenandt was the first to isolate androsterone, a male steroid. Not long after, other scientists began finding ways to synthesize androsterone themselves.[5] Four years later, the Schering Corporation began manufacturing testosterone after it was synthesized for the first time by four chemists from the Organon Company in the Netherlands.[6]
After testosterone was synthesized in the 1930s, anabolic androgenic steroids were developed. Since then, hundred of different steroids have been synthesized and produced but only a few were produced for the general public.[7] In 1965, Dr. John Ziegler attended the World Games and witnessed athletes using hormonal treatments to perform better. With this Ziegler got funding from Ciba, a pharmaceutical company, and synthesized the first anabolic steroid named Dianabol.[8] Since Ziegler’s development of Dianabol, there has been a wide range of steroid production. The 1960’s and 70’s witnessed a significant increase in the number of people using steroids and the commercial sale of it.
During this time, low doses of amphetamines, stimulants were also being tested. Lazar Edeleanu, a Romanian chemist, first synthesized amphetamines in 1887. It was not until 1927 amphetamines were used for clinical use after Gordon Alles, a chemist and pyschopharmacologist, and George Piness, an allergist, re-synthesized amphetamine. From this amphetamines were used as nasal congestion and it was not until later with more test that it was found to effectively treat narcolepsy, increased alertness, blood pressure and confidence.[9] In the 1950s, Ritalin and Cylert, two of the first ADHD medications was produced.[10] In the early 1990s, ADHD diagnoses became more prevalent in the US. The number of patients diagnosed with ADHD increased from 1.6 to 4.2 million from 1990 to 1993, which resulted in an increase in the use of psychostimulants like Ritalin and Cylert.[11]
During the increase of consumption of amphetamines, there was a concurrent increase in the consumption of steroids. However, medical and sporting institutions were skeptical about steroids ability to improve athletic performance. It was not until the 1980s that steroids was considered a performance enhancing drug, and even then it was believed that only special circumstances would permit actual improvement. Given this, sporting institution’s public policy took an anti-doping position. However, this would not deter use of steroids because of the original skepticism. Athletes would not believe the sports medicines proclaimed adverse of steroids.[12] Athletes within other areas of sports like track and field, football, swimming, cycling, wrestling, and many more became users. Men within the general public began using steroids as well. This gave rise to the misuse of steroids. However, since the earliest users of steroids are just reaching their middle ages, there is still no concrete evidence to the long-term effects of steroids.[13]
The International Association of Athletics Federation became the first international sporting federation to ban performance-enhancing drugs.[14] Soon drug testing began more popular in order to regulate the use of these drugs. The creation of the Controlled Substances Act by the US government regulates drug possession, importation, manufacturing and distribution. By 1990, steroids were added to the list of controlled substances.
Just as consumption of both amphetamines and steroids increased concurrently, the misuse of these drugs rose concurrently as well. In recent years, Cylert was taken off of the market because of its negative affects on the liver.[15] Despite the adverse affects of this amphetamine, the misuse of other amphetamines like, Adderall and Ritalin became popular on college campuses. A 2005 study by Sean Estaban McCabe, a professor and researcher at the University of Michigan’s Substance Abuse Research Center, found that in 2004, 4.1% of American college undergrads had taken stimulants without a prescription.[16] Off the label use of prescribed stimulants became a growing problem in the US especially among college students in the early 2000s.
The misuse of adderall and steroids has major societal impacts, as it is a possible health risk to many of its users. These risk are most important to government agencies in trying to regulate these drugs and they look to the medical community to form their polices. There is still a lot of research being done on the adverse effects of these drugs, therefore many government agencies purport only using these drugs for prescribed medical reasons. Along with more research, there are still many debates around performance enhancing drugs. While many against the performance enhancing drugs, there is a possible faction of supporters of performance enhancing drugs forming. These debates will continue until more research is conducted that provides concrete evidence of the effects of these drugs.
[1] Lenhan, Pat. Anabolic Steroids And Other Performance Enhancing Drugs. Taylor & Francis, 2003. eBook. <http://books.google.com/books?id=TOePv6WpruQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false>
[2] Ibid. 1
[3] A Timeline of Performance-enhancing Drugs in Sports." SI.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/magazine/03/11/steroid.timeline/index.html>.
[4] Freedman, Jeri. Steroids: High-risk Performance Drugs. New York: Rosen Pub. Group, 2009. Print.
[5] Ibid. 4
[6] Ibid. 4
[7] "Steroids 101 (History of Steroids)." Association Against Steroid Abuse. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.steroidabuse.com/steroids-101.html>.
[8] Ibid. 1
[9] Billiard, Michel, Thorpy, Michael J. Sleepiness: Causes, Consequences and Treatment. Cambridge University Press, 2011. eBook <http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ENNkVj6y67gC&oi=fnd&pg=PA401&dq=Lazar+Edeleanu&ots=8HdPNVbSOj&sig=nhgq0Vks2wjz-oyADl5uSTC-DGU#v=onepage&q&f=false>
[10] White Ph.D, Margaret H. "Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine." N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://psych.fullerton.edu/mwhite/475pdf/475Stimulants-AmphetaminesCocaine.pdf>.
[11] Ibid. 10
[12] Ibid. 1
[13] Kanayma, Gen, Pope, Harrison G. “Misconceptions About Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Abuse.” Psychiatric Annals 42.10 (2012): 371-375. Web. 28 Nov. 2012 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20121003-05>
[14] "Drugs in Sport/Doping Control." International Association of Athletics Federation. IAAF Medical Manual, n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <www.iaaf.org>.
[15] "Information for Healthcare Professionals: Pemoline Tablets and Chewable Tablets (marketed as Cylert)." US Food and Drug Administration. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm126461.htm>.
[16] Talbot, Margaret. "Brain Gain." The New Yorker. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/04/27/090427fa_fact_talbot>.
[2] Ibid. 1
[3] A Timeline of Performance-enhancing Drugs in Sports." SI.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/magazine/03/11/steroid.timeline/index.html>.
[4] Freedman, Jeri. Steroids: High-risk Performance Drugs. New York: Rosen Pub. Group, 2009. Print.
[5] Ibid. 4
[6] Ibid. 4
[7] "Steroids 101 (History of Steroids)." Association Against Steroid Abuse. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.steroidabuse.com/steroids-101.html>.
[8] Ibid. 1
[9] Billiard, Michel, Thorpy, Michael J. Sleepiness: Causes, Consequences and Treatment. Cambridge University Press, 2011. eBook <http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ENNkVj6y67gC&oi=fnd&pg=PA401&dq=Lazar+Edeleanu&ots=8HdPNVbSOj&sig=nhgq0Vks2wjz-oyADl5uSTC-DGU#v=onepage&q&f=false>
[10] White Ph.D, Margaret H. "Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine." N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://psych.fullerton.edu/mwhite/475pdf/475Stimulants-AmphetaminesCocaine.pdf>.
[11] Ibid. 10
[12] Ibid. 1
[13] Kanayma, Gen, Pope, Harrison G. “Misconceptions About Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Abuse.” Psychiatric Annals 42.10 (2012): 371-375. Web. 28 Nov. 2012 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20121003-05>
[14] "Drugs in Sport/Doping Control." International Association of Athletics Federation. IAAF Medical Manual, n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <www.iaaf.org>.
[15] "Information for Healthcare Professionals: Pemoline Tablets and Chewable Tablets (marketed as Cylert)." US Food and Drug Administration. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm126461.htm>.
[16] Talbot, Margaret. "Brain Gain." The New Yorker. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/04/27/090427fa_fact_talbot>.
Sources:
Billiard, Michel, Thorpy, Michael J. Sleepiness: Causes, Consequences and Treatment. Cambridge University Press, 2011. eBook <http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ENNkVj6y67gC&oi=fnd&pg=PA401&dq=Lazar+Edeleanu&ots=8HdPNVbSOj&sig=nhgq0Vks2wjz-oyADl5uSTC-DGU#v=onepage&q&f=false>
"Drugs in Sport/Doping Control." International Association of Athletics Federation. IAAF Medical Manual, n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <www.iaaf.org>.
Freedman, Jeri. Steroids: High-risk Performance Drugs. New York: Rosen Pub. Group, 2009. Print.
"Information for Healthcare Professionals: Pemoline Tablets and Chewable Tablets (marketed as Cylert)." US Food and Drug Administration. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm126461.htm>.
Kanayma, Gen, Pope, Harrison G. “Misconceptions About Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Abuse.” Psychiatric Annals 42.10 (2012): 371-375. Web. 28 Nov. 2012 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20121003-05>
Lenhan, Pat. Anabolic Steroids And Other Performance Enhancing Drugs. Taylor & Francis, 2003. eBook. <http://books.google.com/books?id=TOePv6WpruQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false>
"Steroids 101 (History of Steroids)." Association Against Steroid Abuse. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.steroidabuse.com/steroids-101.html>.
Talbot, Margaret. "Brain Gain." The New Yorker. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/04/27/090427fa_fact_talbot>.
"A Timeline of Performance-enhancing Drugs in Sports." SI.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/magazine/03/11/steroid.timeline/index.html>.
White Ph.D, Margaret H. "Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine." N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://psych.fullerton.edu/mwhite/475pdf/475Stimulants-AmphetaminesCocaine.pdf>.
"Drugs in Sport/Doping Control." International Association of Athletics Federation. IAAF Medical Manual, n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <www.iaaf.org>.
Freedman, Jeri. Steroids: High-risk Performance Drugs. New York: Rosen Pub. Group, 2009. Print.
"Information for Healthcare Professionals: Pemoline Tablets and Chewable Tablets (marketed as Cylert)." US Food and Drug Administration. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm126461.htm>.
Kanayma, Gen, Pope, Harrison G. “Misconceptions About Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Abuse.” Psychiatric Annals 42.10 (2012): 371-375. Web. 28 Nov. 2012 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20121003-05>
Lenhan, Pat. Anabolic Steroids And Other Performance Enhancing Drugs. Taylor & Francis, 2003. eBook. <http://books.google.com/books?id=TOePv6WpruQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false>
"Steroids 101 (History of Steroids)." Association Against Steroid Abuse. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.steroidabuse.com/steroids-101.html>.
Talbot, Margaret. "Brain Gain." The New Yorker. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/04/27/090427fa_fact_talbot>.
"A Timeline of Performance-enhancing Drugs in Sports." SI.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/magazine/03/11/steroid.timeline/index.html>.
White Ph.D, Margaret H. "Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine." N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2012. <http://psych.fullerton.edu/mwhite/475pdf/475Stimulants-AmphetaminesCocaine.pdf>.